In the 50s and 60s, “classic psychedelics” were used in preclinical trials to treat addiction with promising results. But again, once many of these psychedelics were made illegal in the U.S. and most of Europe, research into their use for therapeutic applications came to a halt. But recent years have seen a resurgence of research looking at psilocybin and other psychedelics as promising treatments for addiction.
In a 2015 study, for example, psilocybin proved useful in treating alcoholism as part of an assisted treatment plan.[9] Significant reductions in drinking and abstinence from drinking were reported after psilocybin administration as part of a treatment program.
Psilocybin also appears to be a potential tool in helping people quit smoking tobacco. In a recent trial, 15 smokers experienced two to three psilocybin sessions as part of a larger cognitive-behavioral therapy program for smoking cessation. Twelve of the participants (80%) were able to successfully quit.[10] By comparison, conventional smoking cessation method success rates—including gum, patches, and going cold turkey—have about a 35% success rate.
More intense but shorter in duration than migraines, cluster headaches are often described as the most painful and disruptive type of headache and they interfere significantly with a person’s life.
So far no systematic studies have been published that describe psilocybin’s potential to treat cluster headaches, but anecdotal reports claiming this use have caught the attention of the medical community. In the mid-2000s, medical professionals began taking notice of psilocybin and LSD as possible treatments for cluster headaches after some of their patients reported remission of their condition following recreational psychedelic use and subsequent self-medication.[11]
One recent survey reported that psilocybin could be a more effective treatment of cluster headaches than currently available medications, with nearly 50% of sufferers reporting psilocybin as a completely effective treatment. [12] Several clinical studies into this use are underway and more research should be available soon. [13] [14]
Some researchers are beginning to theorize that many of psilocybin’s beneficial effects on mental health conditions may be due to its ability to “reset” the Default Mode Network (DMN), the brain’s control system. An overactive DMN been linked to depression and other mood disorders, and psilocybin has been shown to dramatically reduce activity in the area.[15] This has been linked to antidepressant effects.[16]
What are the Benefits and Risks of Using Mushrooms?
Potential Benefits
Among the many historical cultures that have used them, psychedelic mushrooms have a longstanding, profound, and storied reputation as an agent for healing and change. Beyond lore, the benefits of these powerful little fungi are being recognized today in a big way. Studies into the vast and multifarious use of psychoactive mushrooms are being conducted across the United States and abroad, and evidence is strong that they are indeed drivers of personal growth. One recent study published in the Journal of Psychopharmacology found that “a single dose of psilocybin produced substantial and enduring decreases in depressed mood and anxiety along with increases in quality of life.”
Additionally, the mystical and profound experiences that occurred when psilocybin entered the American psychedelic lexicon in the 1960s are now being researched and explored in mainstream medical science. The results are promising and compelling and suggest that psilocybin could be a powerful healer.
More specifically, clinical trials involving patients dealing with life-threatening cancer have been and are currently being conducted in the United States and abroad. These trials are mainly attempting to understand the efficacy of high-dose psilocybin experiences administered in therapeutic environments as a tool for reducing the psychological stress and anxiety that often accompanies a life-threatening diagnosis. The results so far have been promising. Under double-blind, placebo-controlled conditions, a single high dose of psilocybin has been shown to reduce symptoms of psychological distress among people with terminal diagnoses, and the effects of that experience have been substantial and enduring.
Additionally, there is a growing body of research suggesting that part of why psilocybin is so effective is that it impacts neuroplasticity, or the brain’s ability to learn, grow and, most importantly, change.
Also see: Psilocybin Benefits: Magic Mushrooms & Their Many Benefits
Risks
Psilocybin is largely considered one of the safest psychoactive substances you can take. The 2017 Global Drug Survey found that psilocybin is the safest of all the recreational drugs on the market and that just 0.2% of the people who took psilocybin in 2016 needed emergency medical treatment. That’s five times lower than that for MDMA, LSD, and cocaine. Psilocybin is also non-addictive and there’s no known lethal dose, meaning that even if you have a bad trip, you’re unlikely to overdose.
That being said, taking any drug isn’t without risk. At the outset and during a trip, psilocybin can cause some physical side effects such as nausea, perspiration, numbing, and tremors. It can also lead to anxiety, panic attacks, paranoia, and mood swings. A survey published in Substance Abuse and Misuse found that up to 33% of people surveyed who had taken mushrooms experienced paranoia and anxiety at some point during their trip. Long-term physical and psychological effects are rare. When they do occur, research suggests the cause was latent psychological disorders, not the mushrooms themselves.
There is, however, something called Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD), which is commonly known as “flashbacks.” Unlike flashbacks associated with PTSD, however, HPPD is unique to psychedelics and involves perceptual changes in the weeks or months following the use of psilocybin (or other psychedelic). The prevalence of HPPD is unknown, but it’s considered a rare disorder and is not associated with any physical changes or neurological damage.
Mushrooms for Personal Growth
One of the most promising aspects of the intentional and responsible use of psilocybin is its potential to spur personal growth. In early trials where psychedelics were given to healthy adults under supportive conditions, many participants reported lasting beneficial changes in their personality, behaviors, values, and attitudes.[17], [18] More recent studies have also mirrored these early findings. About 40% of participants in laboratory studies involving psilocybin reported positive, long-term changes in their aesthetic experience and relationship to nature.[19]
Anecdotal reports have long supported these initial findings. After a psilocybin experience, people often report a greater appreciation of music, art, and nature along with more tolerance for others and increased creativity and imagination.
A 2011 study also found that more than a year after participants had a single psilocybin experience, their self-reported measures of openness remained significantly elevated, which researches in this study and beyond attribute to a somewhat mysterious but powerful aspect of a mushroom trip: the mystical experience.
In this case, a mystical experience is defined as “feelings of unity and interconnectedness with all people and things, a sense of sacredness, feelings of peace and joy, a sense of transcending normal time and space, ineffability, and an intuitive belief that the experience is a source of objective truth about the nature of reality.” The religious identification of people who have reported having a mystical-type experience during a mushroom trip span the spectrum, but interestingly the profundity of such experiences don’t seem to correlate to religious belief—even atheists have reported the importance of their psilocybin-induced mystical experiences. Additionally, research has shown that the more intense the mystical experience, the greater the positive, long-term changes a person sees.[20]
These subjective effects, such as feelings of interconnectedness, are likely a result of psilocybin’s ability to decrease the interconnectivity of integration hubs in the brain.[21] In plain speak, that means psilocybin allows for more “cross-talk” between regions of the brain that are typically segregated. Researchers speculate that this enables a state of “unconstrained cognition,” meaning the ways we typically organize, categorize, and differentiate the aspects of conscious experience are broken down, and thinking becomes more flexible. [22] To understand how this might be beneficial, it helps to know that similar brain activity patterns are also observed during various states of meditation. For more about this, see our blog post about combining psychedelics and meditation.
It might not surprise you, then, to learn that research has shown that psilocybin can be used to enhance one’s spiritual practice. In a recent study, 75 participants engaged in a six-month spiritual course involving meditation, awareness, and self-reflection. During the course, participants were given either a low or high dose of psilocybin. At the end of the six months, the participants given the high dose of psilocybin showed significantly greater improvements in measures of spirituality such as interpersonal closeness, life meaning, death transcendence, and forgiveness.[23]
With all this in mind, many people believe psilocybin (and other psychedelics) could be a key component of self-improvement and self-optimization. By occasioning the experience of feeling connected to the universe (in whatever individual form that takes) and confronting the deepest part of yourself, many believe psilocybin can help you take the necessary steps to become the best version of yourself you can be.
Considering a psilocybin experience for personal growth? Check out Third Wave’s vetted guide of psilocybin retreat centers around the world.
Are Psilocybin Mushrooms Legal?
Attending Legal Psilocybin Retreats
Third Wave has created its own psychedelic provider directory for you to find curated, legal psilocybin retreats. All retreats listed have either been verified or rigorously vetted by the Third Wave team, so you can feel confident knowing that these options are worth considering in this vulnerable and transformative experience.
Buying Psilocybin Mushrooms
Psilocybin has been illegal in most countries for decades, so make sure to familiarize yourself with local laws before buying psilocybin mushrooms. In the Netherlands, for example, it’s possible to purchase “magic truffles” that contain psilocybin without breaking the law due to a legal loophole. Psilocybin in some form is also legal in Brazil, the British Virgin Islands, and Jamaica.
On May 7, 2019, citizens of Denver, Colorado, voted to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms.[24] This means it’s no longer a punishable offense for adults aged 21 and older to possess them for personal use. This doesn’t make them legal, though. If you’re caught selling or otherwise distributing psilocybin mushrooms, and possibly even growing them, you could still face criminal charges. The law remains unchanged for the rest of Colorado—at least for the time being.
In June the same year, Oakland, California, followed suit with an amendment of its own: Council members voted unanimously to decriminalize not just psilocybin mushrooms but all “entheogenic plants” containing indoleamines, tryptamines, and phenethylamines. Like in Denver, this only applies to adults aged 21 years and older and doesn’t include synthetic substances derived from plants or fungi, such as LSD. However, unlike in Denver, it also decriminalizes (or rather deprioritizes for law enforcement) the cultivation and distribution of the specified psychedelics—which includes psilocybin mushrooms.[25][26] Oakland is implementing a “Grow, Gather, Gift” framework for legalization, which encourages people to grow their own, gather their own, and gift their own plant medicines rather than establishing a for-profit market.
Read our article on the legality of psilocybin mushrooms.
Before sourcing legal mushrooms, it’s important to consider how you want to consume them. To help you decide, read more about the differences between mushroom capsules, edibles, teas, and raw forms in our recent article. Then check out, Third Wave’s Ultimate Guide to Sourcing Psychedelic Medicines for specific vendor recommendations, legal alternative options, and access to our entire library of psychedelic guides.
Psilocybin Mushrooms in the US
Psilocybin mushrooms may be federally banned in the US, but you can legally possess magic mushrooms in certain cities and states around the country. Voters in the 2020 elections were more vocal than ever–they want to decriminalize psychedelic mushrooms and make them available for therapeutic use.
Check out the most recent US ballot votes in our 2021 Psilocybin News article.
Growing and Harvesting Psilocybin Mushrooms
While psilocybin is illegal at the federal level in the U.S., psilocybin mushrooms were deemed legal to grow and possess (as long as they’re not dried) in New Mexico in 2005. In 1978, the Florida supreme court ruled that harvesting wild psilocybin mushrooms was effectively legal until the state legislature said otherwise. So far, no new laws have been passed to regulate the harvest of wild-picked psilocybin mushrooms.
With the exception of three states, psilocybin mushroom spores are perfectly legal to possess in the U.S., as the spores don’t contain psilocybin or psilocin, the chemicals that are specifically regulated by federal law. However, despite the spores being legal, growing mushrooms from the spores is still considered an illicit activity.
Psilocybin Mushroom History and Usage
Brief history
Archaeological evidence from the Sahara desert suggests that humans have been using psychedelic mushrooms for 7,000 years or more and mushrooms are represented in prehistoric art across many geographic regions.[27] In most cases, they’re thought to be religious symbols, often in the context of ceremonies celebrating rights of passage. It’s thought among some that if our ancestors did use mushrooms, the experience may have influenced prehistoric culture, from art to religion to social values that regulated everyday life.
Listen to our podcast episode with Jerry Brown talking about Were Early Christians Tripping On Psilocybin Mushrooms? or Click here to read the transcript
Some take this theory pretty far. In the 90s, ethnobotanist and psychonaut Terence McKenna posited the “Stoned Ape Hypothesis,” which suggests that when early humans or pre-human hominids ingested psychedelic mushrooms, it triggered intellectual advancements that lead to evolutionary benefits—include the mind as we know it today. It should be noted that the scientific community regards this hypothesis with skepticism due to a lack of evidence support some of its assumptions.
There are, however, extensive accounts of pre-Columbian psilocybin use among the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica, namely in Mexico and Guatemala. After conquering these areas in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Spanish forbade psychedelic mushroom use by indigenous peoples, regarding it as a savage and uncivilized cultural practice. Despite this, the indigenous shamans ignored Spanish law in secret for over 400 years and continued to use and administer these mushrooms to preserve their cultural heritage.
The first reliable account in the West of “intoxication” with psilocybin mushrooms came in 1799 when four children were accidentally fed Psilocybe semilanceata, a species of psychedelic mushroom, which their father had unknowingly gathered and cooked into a stew.
The famous Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann (who synthesized LSD) first isolated psilocybin in the lab in 1957 from Psilocybe mexicana, a species of mushroom found primarily in Central America. A year later, it was produced synthetically for the first time.[28]
Gordon Wasson, former vice president of J.P. Morgan & Company, apparently had a fascination with psilocybin mushrooms, which grew into an obsession. In 1955, he traveled to Oaxaca, Mexico, to meet mushroom shaman Maria Sabina, a member of the indigenous Mazatec Indian tribe, who introduced him to psilocybin mushrooms. On his first mushroom trip, he reported feeling as if his soul had been scooped out of his body. [29] Wasson effectively kickstarted the psychedelic mushroom movement in the West when, in 1957, Time Magazine published his photo essay, “Seeking the Magic Mushroom,” in which he detailed his experiences.
After reading of Wasson’s experiences and then traveling to Oaxaca to experience psilocybin mushrooms for themselves, Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert, researchers at Harvard University, founded the Harvard Psilocybin Project, which got them fired shortly after. So they did what any jobless, charismatic academics would have done in 1962: they started a psychedelic movement. Psilocybin mushrooms were quickly adopted into the 1960s counterculture.
In 1971, psilocybin was listed in the UN’s Convention on Psychotropic Substances as a Schedule I drug in the U.S., making it illegal for all purposes. [30] However, psilocybin mushrooms were not part of the UN convention, which, to this day, allows countries who have signed the convention (essentially a treaty) to regulate mushrooms that naturally contain psilocybin as they see fit. However, psilocybin mushrooms are illegal in most countries today, although there are exceptions.
Current Usage
- Psilocybin mushrooms are the most commonly used psychedelics among people ages 34 and younger.[31]
- A 2012 study of 409 university students in the northeast U.S. found that nearly 30% had tried psilocybin mushrooms at least once.[32]
- A report from data collected in the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) shows that, compared to other drugs, psychedelics—which include LSD, PCP, peyote, mescaline, psilocybin mushrooms, and MDMA—were used by about 1.2% of the population of people 12 years of age and older within the past month. Interestingly, “psychotherapeutics” (such as prescription antidepressants and antipsychotics) are reportedly used illegally at a rate nearly six times that of psychedelics.
- Surveys in 12 E.U. member states found that the use of psilocybin mushrooms among people aged 15–24 ranges from less than 1% to 8%.
- In the UK, almost 340,000 people aged 16–59 had used psilocybin mushrooms in the last year as of 2004/2005, right before they were made completely illegal in the U.K.
Types of Mushrooms
Of the 180+ known types of psychedelic mushrooms, the most widely known and consumed species are:
- Psilocybe cubensis: The most well-known and widely cultivated of psilocybin mushrooms.
- Psilocybe cyanescens: Less well-known compared to psilocybe cubensis, but no less cultivated. These are slightly smaller and slightly more psychoactive.
- Psilocybe azurescens: Discovered by world-renowned mycologist Paul Stamets in the mid-90s, this is likely the most potent psilocybin mushroom in the world.
- Amanita Muscaria (Fly Agaric): A red and white mushroom containing the psychoactive elements ibotenic acid and muscimol. This mushroom was regularly used in shamanic tradition by indigenous Siberian and Baltic cultures.
While magic mushrooms are typically from the genus Psilocybe, these are not the only species that contain active compounds–by far. Check out our recent article to learn about Panaeolus, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, and Conocybe mushrooms, to name a few.
How to Identify Psychedelic Mushrooms
Of course, when you first begin mushroom hunting, heed caution. Aside from distinct strains like Penis Envy, there are many types of similar-looking mushrooms with varying levels of toxicity, and usually, only well-trained mushroom hunters can differentiate between species. If you know what to look for, choosing a deadly mushroom is unlikely, but it’s important to be aware of what you’re doing. Misidentified mushrooms can cause sickness or (though rarely) even death when consumed.
That said, psilocybe cubensis grows in abundance in tropical zones throughout the world. They are classic stubby-stemmed parasol-shaped mushrooms with predominantly light-to-golden-brownish caps that are bulbous before fruiting, and flat and wide in diameter when fully mature. The most popular cubensis variety is Golden Teachers, known for medium-strength effects and profoundly insightful journeys.
Psilocybe azurescens, on the other hand, is endemic to the West Coast of the United States and appear slimmer and more convex. Read more about how to identify psychedelic mushrooms.
How to Grow Psychedelic Psilocybin Mushrooms
Disclaimer: Growing psilocybin mushrooms for consumption is a potentially illegal activity, and we do not encourage or condone this activity where it is against the law.
Growing your own psilocybin mushrooms is a good alternative to the potentially dangerous practice of collecting them. As well as providing a reliable, year-round supply, home cultivation eliminates the risk of misidentifying mushrooms in the wild. For many growers, it’s also a fun, low-cost hobby.
While there are ready-made mushroom kits available online, it’s usually best to start from scratch. The kits do contain a living mycelium substrate (the material underlying mushroom growth), which you need to grow your own mushrooms, but making your own substrate is not only more consistent, it’s also less prone to contamination. For more information on how to start your own psilocybin grow, check out our guide here.
What are some Mushroom Myths?
“Psilocybin mushrooms cause brain bleeding, stomach bleeding, and/or kidney failure”
A “bleeding brain” would be diagnosed as a stroke, hemorrhage, or aneurysm. There is no evidence of this ever happening after ingesting psilocybin mushrooms, nor is there any evidence to suggest that these mushrooms cause stomach bleeding. A 1981 report found that the two most common complications with mushroom use were dilated pupils and overly sensitive reflexes.[33] Other literature reviews have found no complications related to mushroom use in healthy individuals.[34][35]
As for kidney problems, the issue is actually a mushroom identification problem. The psychedelic mushroom species Psilocybe semilanceata does not cause kidney issues, but mushrooms in the family Cortinarius are often mistaken for P. semilanceata, and are harmful to the kidneys.
“Shrooms make you go insane”
Researchers have drawn similarities between psilocybin mushroom trips and psychotic episodes like those found in schizophrenia, but in almost all cases, this is temporary (hence, the term “trip”).[36] Even people who are admitted to the emergency room after taking psilocybin mushrooms return to their normal physical and mental state within a matter of hours.[37] A recent large, population-wide study found a reduced likelihood of psychological distress and suicidality among those who use classic psychedelics such as psilocybin mushrooms and LSD.[38]
While there is no conclusive evidence suggesting that latent mental health problems can be exacerbated by psychedelic use, many scientists believe this is the case. [39] As such, if you have a history of mental illness (especially schizophrenia), you may want to avoid psychedelic drugs.
“Magic mushrooms are poisonous”
This depends on your definition of “poisonous.” If you categorize a chemical substance that induces an intoxicated state, alters your consciousness, and causes some physiological changes as poisonous, then sure, psilocybin mushrooms are poisonous. But if that’s the case, then all drugs are poisonous, including alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and caffeine. A narrower definition of a poisonous substance, however, would not categorize psilocybin as such.
While mushroom poisoning from non-psychedelic species can cause serious physical illness and, in rare cases, death, psilocybin mushrooms are not toxic. Proper identification of mushroom species, therefore, is critical.
Psilocybin Mushroom FAQ
Where can I find a legal psilocybin retreats?
To support your journey with experiencing psilocybin mushrooms legally, we’ve also curated, verified, and vetted legal psilocybin mushroom retreats in our psychedelic provider directory; maybe you can find the right one for you.
Can psilocybin be detected in a drug test?
Psilocybin mushrooms and their metabolites are not included in most standard drug screens. However, they are sometimes included in extended drug screens.[40]
Can psilocybin cause psychological trauma?
If you follow the 6S’s of psychedelic use and avoid taking psychedelics if you have a family history of mental health issues, psilocybin will not cause psychological trauma.
In some cases, psilocybin can lead to a short period of acute psychosis, known colloquially as a “bad trip,” if you don’t follow the 6S’s. Although there is no concrete evidence, some scientists suspect that psilocybin can cause latent mental health issues to surface.
How do I know if I have psilocybin mushrooms?
Many species of mushrooms contain psilocybin, and some look similar to poisonous mushrooms, so it’s important to identify your mushrooms correctly. Many species of psilocybin mushrooms are recognizable by their long, thin stems and short cone-like caps. Other rarer mushroom species, like Penis Envy, are defined by the thick, stubby stems and bulbous cap.
Is it legal to grow psilocybin mushrooms?
In most countries, it is illegal to possess, buy, or grow psilocybin mushrooms. However, the spores are legal to buy in many places, as long as you don’t use them to grow mushrooms. If you’re looking to buy mushrooms, read our full article on the legality of psilocybin mushrooms.
What is the best way to store psilocybin mushrooms?
Mushrooms are organic matter, which means you need to store them properly to delay the decaying process. Refrigerators typically work well for raw mushrooms while freezers are more well suited for dried varieties. To ensure your mycelial collection stays fresh, we recommend choosing a magic mushroom storage method that fits with how and when you want to eat your shrooms.
How do I take psilocybin mushrooms?
Psilocybin mushrooms can be eaten whole, brewed in a tea, taken in capsules, or cooked into food. A moderate dose is 1-2.5g, which can be weighed on a scale.
Did you know the consumption method can affect your psilocybin experience? Check out our recent article to learn more about how different forms of magic mushroom can affect the onset, duration, and intensity of the journey.
How do I microdose with psilocybin mushrooms?
Psilocybin mushrooms can be microdosed by ingesting around 0.1-0.3 g, but everyone’s tolerance is different.
How does psilocybin tolerance work?
Taking a moderate dose of psilocybin will produce immediate tolerance. If you take the drug again soon, it will have a weaker effect. You should wait at least three days between psilocybin doses.
Psilocybin also has immediate cross-over effects, meaning it builds tolerance against other psychedelics in the same pharmacological class. Learn more about psilocybin tolerance and how to prevent bad trips in our in-depth article.
Can I mix psilocybin with other drugs?
Psilocybin should not be mixed with Tramadol, as it can lead to serotonin syndrome. Be cautious of mixing psilocybin with cannabis, amphetamines, or cocaine. Click here for a detailed chart of safe drug combinations.
Want to easily grow mushrooms at home?
Third Wave’s Mushrooms Grow Kit and Course turn the daunting task of cultivating mushrooms into a simple one.
Our in-depth guide and step-by-step videos will have you harvesting your own home-grown mushrooms in no time.
Footnotes
[1] Passie, T., Seifert, J., Schneider, U., & Emrich, H. M. (2002). The pharmacology of psilocybin. Addiction Biology, 7(4), 357–364. Retrieved from: https://maps.org/research-archive/w3pb/2002/2002_Passie_22704_1.pdf.
[2] Johnson, M. W., Sewell, R. A., & Griffiths, R. R. (2012). Psilocybin dose-dependently causes delayed, transient headaches in healthy volunteers. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 123(1), 132–140. Retrieved from: https://cpdd.org/publications/drug-and-alcohol-dependence/.
[3] Studerus, E., Kometer, M., Hasler, F., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2011). Acute, subacute and long-term subjective effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a pooled analysis of experimental studies. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(11), 1434–1452. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0269881110382466.
[4] van Amsterdam, J., Opperhuizen, A., & van den Brink, W. (2011). Harm potential of magic mushroom use: a review. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 59(3), 423–429. Retrieved from: https://www.ovid.com/product-details.12163.html.
[5] Vollenweider, F. X., & Kometer, M. (2010). The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(9), 642–651. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn2884.
[6] Grob, C. S., Danforth, A. L., Chopra, G. S., Hagerty, M., McKay, C. R., Halberstadt, A. L., & Greer, G. R. (2011). Pilot study of psilocybin treatment for anxiety in patients with advanced-stage cancer. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(1), 71–78. Retrieved from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/210962.
[7] Carhart-Harris et al. (2016). Psilocybin with psychological support for treatment-resistant depression: an open-label feasibility study. The Lancet Psychiatry. Retrieved from: https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S2215-0366%2816%2930065-7.
[8] Moreno, F. A., Wiegand, C. B., Taitano, E. K., & Delgado, P. L. (2006). Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of psilocybin in 9 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67(11), 1735–1740. Retrieved from: https://maps.org/research-archive/w3pb/2006/2006_Moreno_22868_1.pdf.
[9] Bogenschutz, M. P., Forcehimes, A. A., Pommy, J. A., Wilcox, C. E., Barbosa, P. C. R., & Strassman, R. J. (2015). Psilocybin-assisted treatment for alcohol dependence: A proof-of-concept study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(3), 289–299. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270909625_Psilocybin-assisted_treatment_for_alcohol_dependence_A_proof-of-concept_study.
[10] Johnson, M. W., Garcia-Romeu, A., Cosimano, M. P., & Griffiths, R. R. (2014). Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction. Journal of Psychopharmacology. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0269881114548296.
[11] Sewell, R. A., Halpern, J. H., & Pope, H. G. (2006). Response of cluster headache to psilocybin and LSD. Neurology, 66(12), 1920–1922. Retrieved from: http://www.en.psilosophy.info/pdf/response_of_cluster_headache_to_psilocybin_and_lsd_(psilosophy.info).pdf.
[12] Schindler et al (2015). Indoleamine hallucinogens in cluster headache: results of the Clusterbusters medication use survey. J Psychoactive Drugs, 47(5), 372-381. Retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02791072.2015.1107664?journalCode=ujpd20.
[13] Research into psilocybin and LSD as cluster headache treatment. Retrieved from
https://maps.org/research-archive/html_bak/totestcsses.html
[14] Psilocybin for the Treatment of Cluster Headache. Retrieved from
https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02981173
[15] Carhart-Harris et al. (2012). Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 109(6):2138-43. Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/109/6/2138.full.pdf.
[16] Carhart-Harris et al. (2017). Psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression: fMRI-measured brain mechanisms. Scientific reports, 7:13187. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-13282-7.pdf.
[17] Leary, T., Litwin, G. H., & Metzner, R. (1963). Reactions to psilocybin administered in a supportive environment. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 137(6), 561–573. Retrieved from: https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/Citation/1963/12000/REACTIONS_TO_PSILOCYBJN_ADMINISTERED_IN_A.7.aspx.
[18] Alpert, R., Leary, T., & Metzner, R. (1971). The psychedelic experience. Retrieved from: https://amzn.to/3fXDXFI.
[19] Studerus, E., Gamma, A., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2010). Psychometric Evaluation of the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (OAV). PLOS ONE, 5(8), e12412. Retrieved from: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0012412&type=printable.
[20] Griffiths, R. R., Richards, W. A., Johnson, M. W., McCann, U. D., & Jesse, R. (2008). Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later. Journal of Psychopharmacology. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3050654/pdf/nihms252841.pdf.
[21] Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Williams, T., Stone, J. M., Reed, L. J., Colasanti, A., … others. (2012). Neural correlates of the psychedelic state as determined by fMRI studies with psilocybin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(6), 2138–2143. Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/109/6/2138.full.pdf.
[22] Restructuring consciousness –the psychedelic state in light of integrated information theory. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4464176/
[23] Griffiths et al. (2017). Psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experience in combination with meditation and other spiritual practices produces enduring positive changes in psychological functioning and in trait measures of prosocial attitudes and behaviors. J Psychopharm. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5772431/pdf/10.1177_0269881117731279.pdf.
[24] Denver Psilocybin Mushroom Decriminalization Initiative. Ballot Title and Text. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5bb4f9c27046803ce123a760/t/5c6360158165f54e1f1b090a/1550016533926/DPMDI.pdf.
[25] AP. (2019, Jun 5). The Latest: Oakland 2nd US city to legalize magic mushrooms. Retrieved from https://www.apnews.com/ff023dfbf4534eba8622f504d272ff00.
[26] Decriminalize Nature Oakland. Resolution. Retrieved from https://www.decriminalizenature.org/dno-resolution.
[27] Samorini, G. (2009). The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world. Retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/249d/d61313bc743fee0a556d6a6252a1a541c1cb.pdf?_ga=2.183696166.1455736836.1593080084-259026952.1593080084.
[28] Passie, T., Seifert, J., Schneider, U., & Emrich, H. M. (2002). The pharmacology of psilocybin. Addiction Biology, 7(4), 357–364. Retrieved from: https://maps.org/research-archive/w3pb/2002/2002_Passie_22704_1.pdf.
[29] Teresi, D. (2007, June 3). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom – Andy Letcher – Books – Review. The New York Times.
[30] Psychotropic Substances.
[31] Krebs, T. S., & Johansen, P.-Ø. (2013). Over 30 million psychedelic users in the United States. F1000Research. Retrieved from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6ee7/374715292bfe3a16cb61f820a4bdc92164cc.pdf?_ga=2.220896664.1455736836.1593080084-259026952.1593080084.
[32] Hallock, R. M., Dean, A., Knecht, Z. A., Spencer, J., & Taverna, E. C. (2013). A survey of hallucinogenic mushroom use, factors related to usage, and perceptions of use among college students. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 130(1), 245–248. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0376871612004516?via%3Dihub.
[33] Peden, N. R., Macaulay, K. E. C., Bissett, A. F., Crooks, J., & Pelosi, A. J. (1981). Clinical toxicology of “magic mushroom” ingestion. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 57(671), 543–545. Retrieved from: https://pmj.bmj.com/content/postgradmedj/57/671/543.full.pdf.
[34] Passie, T., Seifert, J., Schneider, U., & Emrich, H. M. (2002). The pharmacology of psilocybin. Addiction Biology, 7(4), 357–364. Retrieved from: https://maps.org/research-archive/w3pb/2002/2002_Passie_22704_1.pdf.
[35] van Amsterdam, J., Opperhuizen, A., & van den Brink, W. (2011). Harm potential of magic mushroom use: a review. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 59(3), 423–429. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0273230011000080?via%3Dihub.
[36] Vollenweider, F. X., Vollenweider-Scherpenhuyzen, M. F., Bäbler, A., Vogel, H., & Hell, D. (1998). Psilocybin induces schizophrenia-like psychosis in humans via a serotonin-2 agonist action. Neuroreport, 9(17), 3897–3902. Retrieved from: https://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/1998/12010/Psilocybin_induces_schizophrenia_like_psychosis_in.24.aspx.
[37] L, S., H, G., & K, C. (2004). Poisonings resulting from the ingestion of magic mushrooms in Krakow. Przeglad Lekarski, 62(6), 394–396. Retrieved from: http://www.oit.cm.uj.edu.pl/documents/31784089/35444205/Magic_mushroom2005.pdf.
[38] Hendricks, P. S., Thorne, C. B., Clark, C. B., Coombs, D. W., & Johnson, M. W. (2015). Classic psychedelic use is associated with reduced psychological distress and suicidality in the United States adult population. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(3), 280–288. Retrieved from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0269881114565653.
[39] Nichols D.E. (2004) Hallucinogens. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 101, 131-181. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0163725803001657?via%3Dihub.
[40]Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault : Drug Testing. Retrieved from: https://erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_testing.shtml.
